The Art of War

The Art of War

**Initial Assessments**

Sun Tzu said: War is a matter of vital importance to the State; the province of life or death; the road to survival or ruin. It is mandatory to examine it thoroughly.

Therefore, appraise it in terms of the five fundamental factors and compare them with the seven elements to assess the true situation. The first factor is the Way; the second is Heaven; the third is Earth; the fourth is the Commander; the fifth are Laws and Regulations.

By the Way, I mean that which causes the people to be of one mind with their ruler, so that they will share their fate of life and death without fear of mortal peril. By Heaven, I mean yin and yang, cold and heat, and the seasons of the year. By Earth, I mean high and low ground, near and far distances, terrain that is treacherous or easy, broad or narrow, and the ground of life and death. By the Commander, I mean wisdom, trustworthiness, benevolence, courage, and strictness. By Laws and Regulations, I mean the organization of units, the duties of officials, and the management of supplies.

All commanders have heard of these five factors. Those who understand them will triumph; those who do not will fail. Therefore, compare them using the seven elements to assess the true situation. Ask: Which ruler has the Way? Which commander has greater ability? Which side gains the advantages of Heaven and Earth? Whose laws and orders are enforced? Which side has superior strength? Which officers and men are better trained? Whose system of rewards and punishments is clearer? From these, I can know who will win and who will lose.

If a commander heeds my calculations and employs me, he will certainly achieve victory—retain him. If a commander does not heed my calculations and employs me, he will certainly be defeated—dismiss him.

Once the calculations are favorable and heeded, create a strategic posture to support operations externally. By strategic posture, I mean exploiting advantages and controlling the situation according to what is profitable.

War is a matter of deception. Therefore, when capable, appear incapable; when active, appear inactive; when near, appear far; when far, appear near. Offer the enemy a lure to draw him in; create disorder in his ranks and take advantage of it. When he is substantial, be prepared for him; when he is strong, avoid him. Provoke him with anger; make him overconfidence by showing humility. Wear him down while he is at rest; sow discord among his ranks by driving wedges among his allies. Attack where he is unprepared; appear where he does not expect it. These are the keys to victory for a military commander; they cannot be predetermined or handed down in advance.

Before engaging in battle, one who calculates victory in the temple has more factors on his side; one who calculates defeat in the temple has fewer factors on his side. One with many factors will win; one with few will lose. How much more so one with no factors at all! By observing in this way, I can see who will win and who will lose.

**Waging War**

Sun Tzu said: In the operations of war, where there are a thousand swift chariots, a thousand heavy chariots, and a hundred thousand armored troops, with provisions transported a thousand li, the expenses at home and on the battlefield, the costs of entertaining guests and emissaries, materials such as glue and lacquer, and the maintenance of chariots and armor, will amount to a thousand pieces of gold per day. Only then can an army of a hundred thousand be mobilized. In actual combat, victory is what is prized. If the war drags on, weapons will be dulled and morale will be blunted. Attacking walled cities will exhaust the strength. If the army is exposed to a prolonged campaign for a long time, the state's resources will be insufficient.

When weapons are dulled and morale is blunted, strength is depleted and resources are exhausted, then other feudal lords will take advantage of the chaos to rise up. Even a wise leader will not be able to manage the aftermath.

Therefore, in war, I have heard of clumsy speed, but I have never seen skilled procrastination. There has never been a case where a prolonged war benefited a state. Therefore, one who does not fully understand the harm of war cannot fully understand the advantages of war.

One who is skilled in waging war does not conscript the people more than once, nor transport supplies more than twice. Equipment is obtained from one's own state, but provisions are obtained from the enemy. Thus, the army's food supply will be sufficient.

A state is impoverished by supplying the army over long distances. Supplying the army over long distances impoverishes the people. When an army is nearby, prices are high; when prices are high, the people's wealth is exhausted. When wealth is exhausted, the people are pressed into heavy labor and taxation. Strength is depleted and wealth is exhausted; within the central plains, households are emptied. The people's expenditures are reduced by seventy percent. The ruler's expenditures—broken chariots and exhausted horses, armor and helmets, arrows and crossbows, shields and protective screens, oxen and heavy carts—are reduced by sixty percent.

Therefore, a wise commander seeks to feed on the enemy. One measure of the enemy's provisions is worth twenty of our own; one hundredweight of the enemy's fodder is worth twenty of our own.

Therefore, what motivates soldiers to kill the enemy is anger; what motivates them to seize the enemy's wealth is reward. Therefore, in chariot warfare, reward the first to capture at least ten of the enemy's chariots, and replace the enemy's flags with our own. Mix the captured chariots with our own and use them; treat captured soldiers well and care for them. This is called conquering the enemy and growing stronger.

Therefore, in war, what is prized is victory, not prolonged operations. Therefore, the commander who understands war holds the people's fate in his hands and is the master of the state's security or peril.

**Strategic Attack**

Sun Tzu said: In the practical art of war, the best thing of all is to take the enemy's country whole and intact; to shatter and destroy it is not so good. So too, it is better to capture an entire army than to destroy it; to capture a regiment, a detachment, or a company entire rather than to destroy them. To fight and conquer in all your battles is not supreme excellence; supreme excellence consists in breaking the enemy's resistance without fighting.

Thus, the highest form of warfare is to attack the enemy's strategy; the next best is to disrupt his alliances; the next is to attack his army in the field; and the worst of all is to attack walled cities. The rule for attacking walled cities is to do so only as a last resort. Construct protective screens and assault vehicles, and prepare siege equipment; this takes three months. Build earthen mounds against the walls; this takes another three months. If the commander, unable to restrain his anger, sends his troops to swarm up the walls like ants, a third of his men will be killed and the city still not taken—such are the disastrous results of a siege.

Therefore, one who is skilled in war subdues the enemy's troops without fighting; he captures their cities without laying siege; he overthrows their kingdom without prolonged operations. He must fight with the aim of preserving his forces whole, competing with the strategy of completeness throughout the realm. Thus, his weapons will not be blunted and the gains can be kept whole. This is the method of strategic attack.

Therefore, the principles of warfare are: if your forces are ten times the enemy's, surround him; if five times, attack him; if twice his strength, divide your forces to engage him; if evenly matched, offer battle; if slightly inferior, avoid him; if greatly inferior, flee from him. Therefore, if a small force is stubborn, it will be captured by a larger one.

The commander is the pillar of the state. If the pillar is thorough and complete, the state will certainly be strong; if the pillar has gaps, the state will certainly be weak.

There are three ways in which a ruler can bring misfortune upon his army: by ordering the army to advance when it should not, or to retreat when it should not—this is called hobbling the army; by interfering in the administration of the three armies without understanding their affairs, causing the officers and soldiers to be confused; by interfering in the duties of the three armies without understanding their authority, causing the officers and soldiers to be suspicious. When the army is both confused and suspicious, trouble from the feudal lords will arrive. This is called bringing disorder upon the army and forfeiting victory.

There are five ways to know who will win: he who knows when to fight and when not to fight will win; he who knows how to use large and small forces will win; he whose officers and men share a common purpose will win; he who is prepared and waits for the unprepared will win; he whose commander is capable and whose ruler does not interfere will win. These five are the way to know victory.

Therefore, know the enemy and know yourself, and in a hundred battles you will never be defeated. If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will be defeated in every battle.

**Dispositions**

Sun Tzu said: In ancient times, those skilled at war first made themselves invincible and waited for the enemy to become vulnerable. Invincibility lies with oneself; vulnerability lies with the enemy. Therefore, those skilled at war can make themselves invincible, but cannot guarantee that the enemy will certainly become vulnerable. It is said that victory can be known, but cannot be forced.

**Offensive Strategy**

What cannot be defended will be attacked; what can be attacked will be defeated. To defend is to have insufficient strength; to attack is to have surplus strength. Those who are skilled in defense conceal themselves beneath the ninefold earth; those skilled in attack move from above the nine heavens. Thus they are able to preserve themselves and achieve total victory.

To foresee victory that does not exceed what ordinary men know—this is not the highest excellence. To win a battle and have all under Heaven call it good—this is not the highest excellence. Therefore, to lift a hair in autumn is not a sign of great strength; to see the sun and moon is not a sign of keen sight; to hear thunder is not a sign of sharp hearing.

Those in ancient times who were skilled in warfare won victories where victory was easy. Therefore, the victories of those skilled in warfare brought them neither reputation for wisdom nor credit for valor. Their victories were free from error. Being free from error, the measures they took were certain to prevail, for they overcame those who were already defeated. Thus, those skilled in warfare established themselves in a position where they could not be defeated and did not miss the enemy's vulnerability. Hence, a victorious army first secures the conditions for victory and then seeks battle; a defeated army first fights and then seeks victory. Those skilled in employing troops cultivate the Way and uphold the laws, and thus are able to govern victory and defeat.

Military doctrine comprises five elements: first, measurement; second, quantity; third, number; fourth, weighing; fifth, victory. Measurement is born from terrain; quantity from measurement; number from quantity; weighing from number; victory from weighing. Thus, a victorious army is like weighing a *yi* against a *zhu*, while a defeated army is like weighing a *zhu* against a *yi*. When a victorious commander leads his men, it is like releasing water stored in a thousand-fathom gorge—this is *shi* (strategic advantage).

**Military Disposition, Chapter Five**

Master Sun said: To manage a large force is no different from managing a small one—it is a matter of organization. To fight a large force is no different from fighting a small one—it is a matter of signals and designations. To ensure that the entire army, when confronted with the enemy, does not falter—this is a matter of the orthodox and the extraordinary. To strike the enemy with certainty—it is like hurling a stone against an egg—this is a matter of striking the empty and avoiding the substantial.

In all battles, engage the enemy with the orthodox and achieve victory through the extraordinary. Thus, those skilled in employing the extraordinary are inexhaustible as Heaven and Earth, ceaseless as the great rivers and seas. They end and begin again, like the sun and moon. They die and are reborn, as the four seasons do. There are no more than five musical tones, yet their variations are beyond counting. There are no more than five colors, yet their variations are beyond counting. There are no more than five flavors, yet their variations are beyond counting. In warfare, there are no more than the orthodox and the extraordinary, yet their variations are inexhaustible. The orthodox and the extraordinary give birth to each other, like a cycle without end—who can exhaust them?

The rush of a torrent that carries stones along—this is *shi* (momentum). The strike of a bird of prey that breaks its target—this is timing. Thus, those skilled in warfare create a perilous *shi* and a brief timing. Their *shi* is like a drawn crossbow; their timing is like the release of the trigger.

Amidst confusion and disorder in battle, one must not be thrown into disarray. Amidst chaos and swirling formations, one must not be defeated. Order arises from discipline; cowardice arises from courage; weakness arises from strength. Discipline and disorder are a matter of organization; courage and cowardice are a matter of *shi*; strength and weakness are a matter of *xing* (form).

Thus, those skilled in manipulating the enemy present a shape, and the enemy will surely follow; offer a bait, and the enemy will surely take it. Move the enemy with the prospect of gain, and ambush them with your prepared forces.

Therefore, those skilled in warfare seek victory through *shi* and do not blame their men. Thus they are able to select the right men and employ *shi*. One who employs *shi* in battle is like one who rolls wood and stone. The nature of wood and stone is to be still when stable and to move when on a slope; to stop when square and to roll when round. Thus, the *shi* of one skilled in warfare is like rolling a round stone down a thousand-fathom mountain—this is *shi*.

**Vacuity and Substance, Chapter Six**

Master Sun said: Whoever occupies the battlefield first and awaits the enemy will be at ease; whoever arrives later and rushes to battle will be weary. Thus, those skilled in warfare direct the enemy and are not directed by the enemy.

To make the enemy come of their own accord—offer them an advantage. To prevent the enemy from arriving—threaten them with harm. Thus, when the enemy is at ease, you can tire them; when they are well-fed, you can starve them; when they are settled, you can move them. Strike where they do not expect; move where they cannot anticipate.

To march a thousand *li* without fatigue—march through territory where the enemy is absent. To attack and surely take—attack what the enemy does not defend. To defend and surely hold—defend what the enemy will not attack. Thus, those skilled in attack leave the enemy unable to know what to defend; those skilled in defense leave the enemy unable to know what to attack. Subtle! Subtle! Until form is invisible. Mysterious! Mysterious! Until sound is inaudible. Thus they become the arbiter of the enemy's fate.

When advancing, none can resist—strike their vacuity. When retreating, none can pursue—move swiftly beyond their reach. Therefore, when I wish to fight, even though the enemy has high walls and deep moats, they cannot but engage me, for I strike what they must rescue. When I do not wish to fight, even though I merely draw a line on the ground to defend, the enemy cannot engage me, for I divert their course.

Thus, cause the enemy to reveal their form while I remain formless. Then I am concentrated and they are divided. I am concentrated as one, they are divided as ten, so I strike one with ten—thus I have the superiority in numbers. When I can strike the few with the many, then the enemy I engage is limited. The ground where I will engage is unknown to the enemy; because it is unknown, the enemy must prepare in many places. The more places they prepare, the fewer forces they have where I will engage. Thus, if they prepare the front, the rear is weak; if they prepare the rear, the front is weak; if they prepare the left, the right is weak; if they prepare the right, the left is weak. If they prepare everywhere, they are weak everywhere. To be weak is to be on the defensive against others; to have superiority is to force others onto the defensive.

Therefore, if one knows the ground of battle and the day of battle, one can march a thousand *li* to meet the enemy. If one does not know the ground or the day of battle, then the left cannot rescue the right, the right cannot rescue the left, the front cannot rescue the rear, the rear cannot rescue the front—how much less when the distances are dozens of *li* apart, or even several *li*! In my estimation, even if the army of Yue were numerous, of what benefit would that be in determining victory or defeat? Therefore it is said: Victory can be created. Even if the enemy is numerous, they can be prevented from fighting.

Thus, calculate to know the enemy's plans for gain and loss; provoke to know their patterns of movement and stillness; reveal their shape to know the terrain of life and death; test them in battle to know where they have surplus and where they lack. The ultimate in shaping the army is to reach formlessness. Being formless, even the deepest spy cannot penetrate, and the wisest counselor cannot devise a plan. I array my forces according to the enemy's shape and place victory before the masses, yet the masses cannot understand. All can see the shape by which I win, but none can know the shape by which I determine victory. Therefore, my victories are never repeated—I respond to the enemy's shape in infinite ways.

The shape of military force is like water. Water's movement avoids heights and flows downward. Military victory avoids the substantial and strikes the vacuity. Water shapes its flow according to the terrain; military force shapes victory according to the enemy. Thus, military force has no constant *shi* and no permanent form. One who can adapt to the enemy's changes and achieve victory is called divine. Thus, the five elements have no constant victory; the four seasons have no fixed position; the sun has its long and short days; the moon has its waxing and waning.

**Maneuvering, Chapter Seven**

# Chapter 7: Maneuvering

Sun Zi said: In the conduct of war, when a general receives his mandate from the sovereign, assembles the troops, and gathers the masses, nothing is more difficult than maneuvering for tactical advantage. The difficulty of maneuvering lies in turning the circuitous into the direct, and turning disadvantage into advantage. Thus, make the enemy's route circuitous while enticing him with small gains; set out after he does, yet arrive before he reaches the objective—this is the method of knowing how to turn the circuitous into the direct.

Therefore, maneuvering for advantage can be beneficial, but maneuvering for advantage can also be dangerous. If you advance the entire army with all its baggage to compete for advantage, you will not arrive in time; if you strip the army of its baggage to compete for advantage, then your supply trains will be lost. For this reason, roll up the armor and push forward, do not stop day or night, traveling at double speed on forced marches—if you march a hundred li to compete for advantage, the commanders of all three armies will be captured. The strong will arrive first, the weary will arrive last; only one-tenth of the force will reach the objective. If you march fifty li to compete for advantage, the commander of the vanguard will be routed; only half the force will arrive. If you march thirty li to compete for advantage, two-thirds of the force will arrive. Therefore, an army without its supply trains will be lost; an army without provisions will be lost; an army without reserves will be lost. Thus, one who does not know the designs of the feudal lords cannot make alliances beforehand; one who does not know the configurations of mountains, forests, wetlands, and marshes cannot conduct a march; one who does not employ local guides cannot secure the advantages of terrain.

Therefore, warfare is established on deception, moved by advantage, and adapted through division and combination. Thus, when swift, be like the wind; when slow and orderly, be like a forest; when plundering and invading, be like fire; when stationary, be like a mountain; when unknowable, be like the shadows; when striking, be like thunder and lightning. Plunder the countryside to divide the people, expand territory to divide the profits, weigh the situation and then act. He who first understands the method of turning the circuitous into the direct will prevail—this is the method of maneuvering for advantage.

The *Jun Zheng* (Military Administration) says: "When words cannot be heard, drums and gongs are used; when signals cannot be seen, banners and flags are used." Drums and banners and flags are the means by which the ears and eyes of the people are unified. When the people are unified, then the brave cannot advance alone and the timid cannot retreat alone—this is the method of commanding the masses. Therefore, in night battles, drums and gongs are used frequently; in day battles, banners and flags are used frequently—these are the means of adapting to what the people can hear and see.

The spirit of the three armies can be sapped; the heart of the general can be seized. Thus, in the morning the spirit is keen; by midday, it is flagging; by evening, it is exhausted. Therefore, the skilled commander avoids the enemy's keen spirit and strikes when it is flagging and exhausted—this is the method of managing spirit. Await disorder with order, await clamor with calm—this is the method of managing the mind. Await the distant with proximity, await the weary with ease, await the hungry with fullness—this is the method of managing strength. Do not intercept a well-ordered banner; do not attack a magnificent formation—this is the method of managing change.

Therefore, the principles of warfare are: Do not attack an enemy occupying high ground; do not oppose an enemy with his back to a hill; do not pursue an enemy who feigns retreat; do not attack the enemy's elite troops; do not swallow the enemy's bait; do not block an enemy returning home; when surrounding an enemy, always leave him an opening; do not press a desperate enemy—these are the principles of warfare.

# Chapter 9: Maneuver Types

Sun Zi said: In the conduct of war, when a general receives his mandate from the sovereign and assembles the troops and gathers the masses: in impassable terrain, do not encamp; in intersecting terrain, forge alliances; in isolated terrain, do not linger; in encircled terrain, devise stratagems; in death terrain, fight. There are roads one should not take; there are armies one should not attack; there are cities one should not assault; there are grounds one should not contest; there are sovereign's orders one should not obey. Therefore, a general who understands the advantages of the nine types of maneuvering knows how to conduct war; a general who does not understand the advantages of the nine types of maneuvering, even if he knows the terrain, cannot derive advantage from the terrain; one who commands troops without knowing the methods of the nine types of maneuvering, even if he knows the advantages of terrain, cannot derive advantage from the use of his men.

Therefore, the deliberations of the wise must weigh both advantage and disadvantage together. Weighing advantage together with disadvantage ensures that matters can be accomplished; weighing disadvantage together with advantage ensures that troubles can be resolved. Thus, bend the feudal lords by means of harm; keep the feudal lords occupied by means of tasks; lure the feudal lords by means of advantage.

Therefore, the principles of warfare are: do not rely on the enemy not coming, but rely on our being ready for him; do not rely on the enemy not attacking, but rely on our being unassailable.

Therefore, there are five dangers for a general: if he is reckless to the point of death, he can be killed; if he is cowardly to the point of survival, he can be captured; if he is quick to anger, he can be provoked; if he is obsessed with honor, he can be shamed; if he is overly fond of the people, he can be harassed. All five of these are faults of the general and disasters of warfare. The destruction of the army and the killing of the general must arise from these five dangers—they cannot be left unexamined.

# Chapter 10: Terrain Configurations

Sun Zi said: In positioning the army and observing the enemy: when crossing mountains, stay near valleys; face life and occupy high ground; do not ascend to engage an enemy who holds the heights—this is how to position an army in the mountains. When crossing water, you must move away from the river. If an enemy is crossing water to attack, do not meet him in the water; it is advantageous to strike when he has crossed halfway. If you wish to engage in battle, do not position yourself near the water to meet the enemy; face life and occupy high ground, and do not face the current of the water—this is how to position an army on water. When crossing salt marshes, simply depart quickly and do not linger. If you engage the enemy in salt marshes, you must stay near water and grass and have your back to trees—this is how to position an army in salt marshes. On level ground, occupy open terrain and keep the high ground on your right and rear; place death before you and life behind you—this is how how to position an army on level ground. These are the advantages of the four types of terrain positioning, by which the Yellow Emperor defeated the four emperors.

In general, an army prefers high ground and disdains low ground; it values the sunny and despises the shaded; it sustains life and positions itself on solid ground. When the army is free of all illness, this is called certain victory. On hills and dikes, you must occupy the sunny side and keep them on your right and rear—this is the advantage of warfare and the assistance of terrain. When rain falls from above and the water comes rushing down, those who wish to ford should wait for it to settle.

In general, terrain that features sheer cliffs, natural wells, natural prisons, natural nets, natural pits, and natural crevices—you must depart from these quickly and not approach them. Keep them far from us and near the enemy; face them ourselves and have the enemy with his back to them. Where the army is flanked by steep defiles, marshes, reeds and rushes, forests, or dense undergrowth, you must carefully search and investigate repeatedly—these are the places where ambushes and spies are concealed.

An enemy who draws near and remains still is relying on natural defenses. One who challenges from afar desires that our forces advance. Troops stationed on level ground are seeking advantage. When many trees move, the enemy is approaching. When there are many obstructions in the grass, it is a ploy to create doubt. Birds rising in flight indicate an ambush. Startled beasts indicate a mass assault. Dust rising high and sharp means chariots are coming. Dust low and wide means infantry is coming. Dust scattered and in thin lines means wood is being gathered. Dust sparse and drifting means the enemy is pitching camp. Humble words coupled with increased preparations mean the enemy advances. Bold words coupled with a show of forward movement mean a retreat. Light chariots emerging first and taking position on the flanks means forming battle lines. Seeking peace without prior agreement is a plot. Running about while deploying troops signals a planned engagement. Advancing and retreating by turns is meant to entrench. Soldiers leaning on their weapons are starving. Those who drink first when drawing water are thirsty. Seeing advantage but not advancing means the army is exhausted. Birds gathering on camp walls mean the garrison is deserted. Night cries mean fear. A disturbed camp means the commander lacks authority. Fluttering banners mean disorder. Angry officers mean the troops are weary. When grain is fed to horses, meat is eaten by men, cooking vessels are not hung back in camp, and soldiers do not return to their quarters, the enemy is a desperate foe. Speaking softly and at length with the men means the commander has lost the masses. Frequent rewards mean the situation is desperate. Frequent punishments means the situation is untenable. To be harsh at first and then fear the men is the height of incompetence. Coming with tribute and apologies means the enemy wishes to rest. When armies confront each other in anger but neither engage nor withdraw for a long time, one must observe carefully.

Therefore, in warfare, the important thing is not to seek greater numbers, but simply to advance without recklessness, to concentrate one's forces, to assess the enemy, and to win over men. Only those who are incautious and treat the enemy lightly are certain to be captured.

If soldiers are punished before they are attached to you, they will not submit. If they do not submit, they are difficult to employ. If soldiers are already attached to you but discipline is not enforced, they likewise cannot be employed. Therefore, govern them with civility and unify them with martial discipline—this is called certain victory. When orders have long been in practice in instructing the men, the men will submit. When orders have not been consistently practiced in instructing the men, the men will not submit. When orders are consistently practiced, it means the commander and his men are in mutual accord.

Terrain (Chapter Ten)

Sunzi said: In general, terrain includes ground that is open, ground that is entangling, ground that is standoffish, ground that is narrow, ground that is precipitous, and ground that is distant. Ground to which I can go and from which the enemy can come is called open. In open terrain, secure the high ground and sunny side first, facilitate supply lines, and fighting will be advantageous. Ground to which I can go but from which it is difficult to return is called entangling. In entangling terrain, if the enemy is unprepared, go forth and prevail; if the enemy is prepared, going forth without prevailing and having difficulty returning is disadvantageous. Ground where going forth is disadvantageous for me and likewise disadvantageous for the enemy is called standoffish. In standoffish terrain, even if the enemy tempts me, I do not go forth; I draw away and cause the enemy to go halfway forth, then strike—this is advantageous. In narrow terrain, if I occupy it first, I must fill it to await the enemy. If the enemy occupies it first, do not follow if it is filled; follow if it is not filled. In precipitous terrain, if I occupy it first, I must hold the high ground and sunny side to await the enemy. If the enemy occupies it first, draw away and do not follow. In distant terrain, where the forces are evenly matched, it is difficult to provoke battle, and fighting is disadvantageous. These six are the principles of terrain; they are the supreme responsibility of the general and cannot be ignored.

Therefore, armies have routed armies, lax armies, fallen armies, collapsed armies, disordered armies, and defeated armies. These six are not natural disasters but the fault of the general. When forces are evenly matched and one strikes ten, this is a routed army. When the troops are strong but the officers are weak, this is a lax army. When the officers are strong but the troops are weak, this is a fallen army. When senior officers are angry and insubordinate, encountering the enemy and fighting on their own out of resentment while the general does not know their capabilities, this is a collapsed army. When the general is weak and lacks strictness, when teaching and guidance are unclear, when officers and men have no constant standards, and battle lines are deployed haphazardly, this is a disordered army. When the general cannot assess the enemy, engaging many with few, striking the strong with the weak, and the army has no elite vanguard, this is a defeated army. These six are the pathways to defeat; they are the supreme responsibility of the general and cannot be ignored.

Terrain is an aid to warfare. Assessing the enemy and determining victory, calculating natural obstacles, distances, and proximity—this is the way of the superior general. He who understands this and wages war will surely prevail; he who does not understand this and wages war will surely be defeated. Therefore, if the way of battle ensures victory, even if the ruler says do not fight, the general may fight; if the way of battle does not ensure victory, even if the ruler says he must fight, the general need not fight. Therefore, advancing without seeking glory, retreating without avoiding punishment, protecting only the people and whose benefit accords with the ruler's—such a general is the treasure of the state.

Treat soldiers as infants, and you can lead them into deep ravines. Treat soldiers as beloved sons, and you can lead them to die with you. If you are generous but cannot employ them, affectionate but cannot command them, and disorderly but cannot govern them, they are like spoiled children and cannot be used.

Knowing that our troops can strike but not knowing that the enemy cannot be struck—this is half of victory. Knowing that the enemy can be struck but not knowing that our troops cannot strike—this is half of victory. Knowing that the enemy can be struck and that our troops can strike, but not knowing that the terrain is unsuitable for battle—this is half of victory. Therefore, he who understands warfare acts without confusion and executes without exhaustion. It is said: Know the enemy and know yourself, and victory will be without peril. Know Heaven and know Earth, and victory will be complete.

The Nine Situations (Chapter Eleven)

Sunzi said: In general, the methods of warfare include dispersive ground, facile ground, contested ground, open ground, focal ground, serious ground, entrapped ground, encircled ground, and death ground. When feudal lords fight upon their own territory, it is dispersive ground. When penetrating enemy territory but not deeply, it is facile ground. Ground that is advantageous for me to hold and also advantageous for the enemy to hold is contested ground. Ground to which I can go and from which the enemy can come is open ground. Ground where the territories of three feudal lords meet, and he who arrives first gains the support of the rest of the realm, is focal ground. When penetrating deeply into enemy territory and leaving many cities behind, it is serious ground. Mountains, forests, natural obstacles, and marshes—all difficult terrain—is entrapped ground. Where the way in is narrow and the way out is circuitous, so that a small enemy force can strike our larger one, it is encircled ground. Where rapid fighting means survival and slow fighting means destruction, it is death ground. Therefore, on dispersive ground do not fight. On facile ground do not halt. On contested ground do not attack. On open ground do not let communications be severed. On focal ground form alliances. On serious ground plunder for supplies. On entrapped ground pass through quickly. On encircled ground resort to stratagem. On death ground fight.

The ancient masters of the art of war could cause the enemy's forward and rear elements to be unable to reach each other, the many and the few to be unable to rely upon each other, the noble and the base to be unable to rescue each other, the high and the low to be unable to hold together, the soldiers to be scattered and unable to assemble, and the troops to be united but unable to be uniform. When action was advantageous, they moved; when it was not advantageous, they halted. Someone asked: "If the enemy is numerous and well-ordered and about to advance, how should we deal with them?" The reply: "Seize what the enemy holds dear, and then he will do as we wish." Thus the essence of military action lies in speed, taking advantage of the enemy's unpreparedness, traveling by unexpected routes, and attacking where he is unguarded.

In general, the principles of operating as a force in enemy territory are: when you penetrate deeply, the troops will be focused, and the defenders will not be able to overcome you. Plunder the fertile countryside, and the three armies will have sufficient food. Carefully maintain the troops' strength and do not exhaust them; concentrate their energy and build up their strength. Maneuver the troops and devise stratagems so that they are unpredictable. Cast them into positions with no escape, and they will choose death over flight. When they face death, how can they not exert their utmost strength? When soldiers are in desperate straits, they will have no fear. When there is nowhere to go, they will hold firm. When they have penetrated deeply, they will be cohesive. When there is no choice, they will fight. Therefore, such troops need no admonition to be vigilant, need no urging to perform their duty, need no formal agreements to be close, and need no orders to be trustworthy. Prohibit omens and dispel doubts, and they will fight to the death without wavering. Our soldiers do not have surplus wealth, not because they despise goods; they do not have long lives remaining, not because they despise longevity. On the day the orders are issued, the soldiers who are sitting have tears soaking their collars, and those lying down have tears streaming down their faces. When they are cast into positions with no escape, they possess the courage of Zhu and Gui.

Thus those who are skilled in the art of war are like the Shu Ran. The Shu Ran is a snake from Mount Chang. Strike its head, and its tail comes to the rescue; strike its tail, and its head comes to the rescue; strike its middle, and both head and tail come to the rescue. Someone asked: "Can troops be made like the Shu Ran?" The reply: "Yes. The people of Wu and the people of Yue detest each other, yet when they are crossing a river together in the same boat and encounter a windstorm, they rescue each other like the left and right hands." Therefore, tethering horses and burying wheels is not sufficient to rely upon; making the brave and the timid uniform in their courage is the way of good governance; making the strong and the weak each serve their purpose is the principle of terrain. Thus those who are skilled in the art of war lead their troops as if directing a single person—this is because there is no alternative.

The business of the general lies in being calm and inscrutable, and in being upright and orderly. He is able to blind and deafen the eyes and ears of the soldiers, keeping them ignorant. He changes his plans and alters his stratagems so that others cannot recognize them. He changes his encampments and takes circuitous routes so that others cannot anticipate his intentions. When he leads the troops to an engagement, it is like climbing up high and removing the ladder behind them. When he leads the troops deep into the territory of the feudal lords, he releases their trigger, burning the boats and smashing the cauldrons, driving them like a flock of sheep—driving them forward, driving them back—and none know where they are going. Gathering the masses of the three armies and casting them into perilous positions—this is the business of the general. The variations of the nine types of terrain, the advantages of contraction and extension, and the principles of human nature must all be carefully examined.

In general, the principles of operating as a force in enemy territory are: when you penetrate deeply, the troops will be cohesive; when you penetrate shallowly, they will scatter. When an army crosses the border and advances into enemy territory, it is on desperate ground. When it is at a crossroads accessible from all four sides, it is on key ground. When it has penetrated deeply into enemy territory, it is on serious ground. When it has penetrated only shallowly, it is on light ground. When its rear is blocked and its front is narrow, it is on encircled ground. When there is no escape, it is on death ground. Therefore, on scattered ground, I will unify the will of the troops. On light ground, I will keep the units connected. On contested ground, I will hasten to the rear. On open ground, I will be vigilant in defense. On key ground, I will strengthen our alliances. On serious ground, I will ensure the food supply. On treacherous ground, I will advance along the route. On encircled ground, I will block the gaps. On death ground, I will show the troops that there is no survival. Thus the nature of troops is: when encircled, they resist; when there is no choice, they fight; when in extremity, they follow orders.

Therefore, if you do not know the plans of the feudal lords, you cannot make alliances in advance. If you do not know the terrain—mountains, forests, natural barriers, and marshes—you cannot conduct military operations. If you do not use local guides, you cannot gain the advantages of terrain. If even one of these four or five matters is unknown, you do not have the army of a hegemon. The army of a hegemon, when attacking a great state, can prevent the enemy's masses from assembling. When its might is brought to bear on the enemy, it can prevent the enemy's alliances from forming. Therefore, it does not compete for alliances throughout the world, nor does it cultivate influence throughout the world; it relies on its own power, and when its might is brought to bear on the enemy, the enemy's cities can be taken and its state can be destroyed. It bestows rewards outside the established norms, and issues commands outside the normal governance. It directs the masses of the three armies as if directing a single person. It assigns them tasks without revealing the reasons; it directs them toward advantages without informing them of the dangers. Cast them into positions of peril, and then they will survive; plunge them into death ground, and then they will live. When the masses are plunged into danger, then they can achieve victory or defeat. Thus the business of warfare lies in conforming to the enemy's intentions, concentrating the enemy in a single direction, and striking a thousand miles away to kill the general—this is what is called skill in bringing matters to fruition.

Therefore, on the day the policy is enacted, the passes are sealed and the tallies are broken, and no envoys are allowed through. The deliberations are conducted with rigor in the ancestral temple. When the enemy reveals an opening, you must enter it at once. Seize what the enemy holds dear, and agree on a time with him only in the most general terms. Follow the line set by the enemy, and thereby conduct the decisive battle. Thus at first be like a maiden, and the enemy will open his doors; then be like a hare on the loose, and the enemy will be unable to resist.

Chapter Twelve: Attack by Fire

Master Sun said: There are five kinds of fire attack: the first is to burn the enemy's personnel; the second is to burn his supplies; the third is to burn his baggage trains; the fourth is to burn his arsenals; the fifth is to burn his supply lines. For fire to be employed, there must be the proper conditions, and the necessary materials must always be prepared. There are times to set fires and days to start them. The proper time is when the weather is dry. The proper day is when the moon passes through the constellations of Ji, Bi, Yi, and Zhen. When the moon is in these four constellations, the days are windy.

In all fire attacks, you must respond according to the changes produced by the five types of fire. If a fire breaks out within the enemy's camp, then respond to it from outside early. If a fire breaks out but the enemy's troops remain calm, wait and do not attack. Let the fire reach its full intensity, and then follow up if you can; if you cannot, halt. If a fire can be started from outside, do not wait for an inside response—set it at the appropriate time. Do not attack from downwind when a fire is set upwind. If the wind blows long during the day, it will cease at night. All armies must understand the changes of the five types of fire and calculate accordingly, being prepared to respond. Therefore, to use fire as an aid to attack is brilliant; to use water as an aid to attack is powerful. Water can cut off the enemy, but cannot deprive him of his resources.

To win battles and take objectives but fail to consolidate the achievement is ominous; this is called "lingering waste." Therefore it is said: The wise ruler deliberates on it; the capable general consolidates it. Do not act unless it is advantageous; do not employ forces unless there is a prospect of gain; do not fight unless the situation is critical. A ruler must not raise an army out of anger; a general must not engage in battle out of resentment. Act when it is advantageous; halt when it is not. Anger can turn to joy again, and resentment can turn to pleasure again, but a perished state cannot be restored, and the dead cannot be brought back to life. Therefore the wise ruler is cautious about it, and the capable general is alert to it. This is the way to preserve the state and keep the army intact.

Chapter Thirteen: The Use of Spies

Sun Tzu said: When an army of one hundred thousand is raised and dispatched a thousand li, the expenses of the people and the provisions of the state will amount to a thousand pieces of gold per day. There will be commotion both within and without, with people toiling along the roads, and seven hundred thousand families prevented from attending to their work. Hostilities may last for years, yet the struggle may be decided in a single day in the pursuit of victory. Yet to begrudge rank, emolument, and a hundred pieces of gold and thereby remain ignorant of the enemy's condition is the height of inhumanity. Such a man is no general, no sovereign's assistant, no master of victory. Thus the reason that enlightened rulers and able generals are able to strike and conquer and achieve successes beyond the masses is foreknowledge. This foreknowledge cannot be obtained from spirits or gods, cannot be derived from the correspondence with past events, and cannot be verified by calculation. It must be obtained from men who know the condition of the enemy.

There are five kinds of spy operations: local spies, internal spies, double agents, expendable spies, and living spies. When all five are employed simultaneously and no one knows their methods, this is called the "divine skein" and is the sovereign's treasure. Local spies are employed by making use of the enemy's own people. Internal spies are employed by making use of the enemy's officials. Double agents are employed by making use of the enemy's spies. Expendable spies are given false information to spread, so that our spies may learn of it and transmit it to the enemy. Living spies return with their reports.

In the affairs of the army, no relationship is closer than with spies, no rewards are more generous than those given to spies, and no matters are more secret than those concerning spies. Only a sage of supreme wisdom can employ spies. Only one who is humane and just can direct spies. Only one who is subtle and discerning can ascertain the truth of spies' reports. Subtle! Subtle! There is no aspect of affairs in which spies are not to be employed. If a matter concerning spies is leaked before it is set in motion, both the spy and those who were informed of it must be put to death.

Whenever an army wishes to strike, a city wishes to attack, or a person wishes to be killed, one must first learn the names of the defending general, his attendants, his gatekeepers, his doorkeepers, and his household staff. Our spies must be directed to ascertain this information. We must seek out enemy spies who have come to spy on us, win them over with inducements, and give them lodgings. Thus double agents may be obtained and employed. Through them, local spies and internal spies may be obtained and used. Through them, expendable spies may be used to spread false information to the enemy. Through them, living spies may be sent and return as planned. The ruler must know the workings of all five types of spy, and the knowledge of them depends upon double agents. Therefore, double agents must be treated with the greatest generosity.

In ancient times, when the Yin dynasty rose, Yi Zhi was in Xia; when the Zhou dynasty rose, Lü Ya was in Yin. Thus enlightened rulers and able generals who can employ persons of supreme wisdom as spies are certain to achieve great success. This is the crux of military affairs, upon which the army relies for all its movements.

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The King of Wu said to Wu Zixu and Sun Wu: "At first you said that Ying could not be entered. How does it stand now?" The two generals said: "In warfare, one borrows victory to establish one's authority; this is not the constant way of victory." The King of Wu said: "What do you mean by this?" The two generals said: "Chu's army is the strongest enemy under heaven. Now, if I contend with them, only one in ten survives, and Your Majesty's entry into Ying is due to Heaven—I dare not presume to guarantee it." The King of Wu said: "I wish to attack Chu again. How can I succeed?" Wu Zixu and Sun Wu said: "Nang Wa is greedy and has committed many offenses against the lords, and Tang and Cai resent him. Your Majesty must attack, and secure Tang and Cai."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu: "In 'dispersive ground,' the soldiers long for home and cannot be fought with; one must then hold firm and not go out. If the enemy attacks our small cities, plunders our fields, blocks our wood-gathering, and seals our strategic passes, waiting until we are depleted and then attacking in haste, what should be done?" Sun Wu said: "When the enemy has penetrated deep into our territory, they are for the most part separated from their cities, and the soldiers regard the army as their home, focusing their minds and fighting lightly. Our soldiers, being in their own country, are attached to their land and cling to life. If we form ranks, they are not firm; if we fight, they are not victorious. We should gather the people and assemble the masses, store grain and hoard silk, secure the cities and prepare the defiles, and send light troops to cut off the enemy's supply lines. If they cannot provoke us to battle, if their supplies cannot arrive, and if there is nothing to plunder in the countryside, the three armies will be starved and exhausted. Thereupon we may lure them, and success can be achieved. If we fight in the open field, we must exploit the terrain, set ambushes relying on the defiles. If there are no defiles, we conceal ourselves in overcast weather, gloomy skies, and fog, striking them unexpectedly and attacking when they are negligent, and success can be achieved."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu: "When we reach 'light ground,' having just entered the enemy's territory, the soldiers think of returning, it is easy to retreat but hard to advance, they have not yet turned their backs on the defiles, and the three armies are in fear. The great general wishes to advance, but the soldiers wish to retreat; high and low are of different minds. The enemy holds his city fortifications, arrays his chariots and cavalry, some blocking our front, some striking our rear. What should be done?" Sun Wu said: "When the army reaches light ground, the soldiers are not yet of one mind; the task is to press forward. Do not make battle the objective. Do not approach their famous cities. Do not travel their main roads. Create doubts and feign confusion, giving the appearance of about to depart. Then select swift cavalry, who advance in silence, and seize their cattle, horses, and livestock. When the three armies see that they have gained something, they will advance without fear. Divide our fine troops and secretly set ambushes. If the enemy comes, strike them without hesitation. If they do not come, withdraw and depart."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu: "In 'contested ground,' the enemy arrives first, seizes the strategic points and secures their advantages, selects and drills their troops, and either sallies forth or defends, guarding against our unexpected moves. What should be done?" Sun Wu said: "The method of contested ground is this: he who yields gains; he who contends loses. If the enemy has secured the position, do not attack him lightly. Withdraw and feign retreat, set up banners and beat drums, hasten toward what he loves, drag up brush and raise dust to confuse his eyes and ears. Divide our fine troops and secretly set ambushes. The enemy will surely sally forth to rescue. When others desire something, I give it to them; when others abandon something, I take it. This is the way of seizing the advantage. If we arrive first and the enemy uses this tactic, then select our elite troops and firmly hold the position, send light troops in pursuit, and divide ambushes in the defiles. When the enemy turns to fight, the ambush troops rise from the flanks. This is the way of complete victory."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu: "In 'intersecting ground,' I wish to cut off the enemy so that they cannot come. I must secure all my frontier cities, strengthen their defenses, sever the routes, and block the passes. But if I do not plan ahead and the enemy has already prepared, so that they can come to us but we cannot go to them, and our forces are equal in number, what should be done?" Sun Wu said: "When we cannot go to them but they can come to us, we divide our troops and conceal them, hold our position and lull them into negligence, and show them that we are incapable. When the enemy is about to arrive, we set ambushes in hidden places and strike them unexpectedly, and success can be achieved."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu, saying, "In intersecting territory, one must seize first. But our route is long; if we set out later, even driving our chariots and riding our horses at full speed, we may fail to arrive first. What then should I do?"

Sun Wu replied, "When the various lords have connections on all sides, and their roads open in four directions, and we face the enemy with other states nearby—what is called 'seizing first' requires sending generous gifts with light envoys to secure agreements and alliances with neighboring states, to forge bonds of kinship and ties of favor. Though our troops arrive later, we will already have made them our allies. Select and train your soldiers, occupy strategic positions and settle there, keep our military affairs in our own hands, stockpile our provisions, and let our chariots and cavalry go out to reconnoiter boldly. When we have many helpers, the enemy will lose its supporters. The various states will form a pincer formation, beating drums and attacking together. The enemy will be terrified, not knowing which way to turn."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu, saying, "I lead my army deep into heavy territory, crossing many obstacles, and our supply lines are cut off. Suppose we wish to return, but the situation makes it impossible to get through. We wish to feed off the enemy while keeping our forces intact. What then should I do?"

Sun Wu replied, "Whenever occupying heavy territory, the soldiers will be daring and bold. When transportation and supply lines are cut off, plunder to sustain provisions. Whatever grain and silk are seized below must all be turned over to the officers above. Those who seize much will be rewarded, and the soldiers will have no thought of returning home. If you wish to break out, be thoroughly fortified and well prepared. Dig deep trenches and build high ramparts, making a show to the enemy that you intend to stay for a long time. The enemy will suspect that there is an open route and will privately remove their forces from the critical paths. Then order light chariots to advance with bits in their mouths, raising clouds of dust and smoke, using cattle and horses as bait. If the enemy comes out, beat the drums and follow them. Secretly deploy our soldiers in ambush, agreeing on a signal with the troops inside and outside. When inner and outer forces respond to each other, their defeat can be foreseen."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu, saying, "I enter ruined territory, where mountains and rivers present obstacles and the roads are difficult to travel. After marching for a long time, the troops are exhausted. The enemy is before us and lies in ambush behind us. They encamp on our left and guard our right. Their fine chariots and stalwart cavalry block our narrow passes. What then should I do?"

Sun Wu replied, "Advance light chariots first, ten li ahead of the main army, to await the enemy. At the appointed time, at the strategic and difficult points, some divide to the left, some divide to the right. The commander observes on all four sides, chooses a gap to penetrate, and all converge on the main road. Rest only when the enemy is exhausted."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu, saying, "I enter invested territory. Before me are strong enemies; behind me are dangerous obstacles. The enemy has cut off our supply lines and is waiting for us to move so they can exploit our situation. The enemy drums and shouts but does not advance, watching to see what we can do. What then should I do?"

Sun Wu replied, "In invested territory, it is essential to block the gap, showing that there is no way out. Then treat the army as one's home, so that ten thousand men are of one mind. The three armies exert their strength together. Cook meals for several days in succession, but let no smoke or fire be seen. Deliberately create the appearance of a disorganized, weakened, and feeble force. When the enemy sees us, they will certainly take us lightly. Incite and encourage the soldiers, making them burn with fury. Deploy fine troops in ambush, with dangerous obstacles on the left and right. Strike the drums and sally forth. If the enemy meets us, attack swiftly and strive to break through. Those in front fight; those in back expand the breach; the left and right form pincers."

The King further asked, "The enemy has surrounded us in our invested position and lies in deep ambush. They show us profit to entangle us, ensnaring us with their banners, creating such confusion that we do not know what to do. What should I do?"

Sun Wu replied, "A thousand men wield the banners, blocking the critical paths at various points. Send forward light troops to provoke, form up for battle but actually do not engage, make contact but withdraw. This is the method for defeating their schemes."

He further said, "When an army enters enemy territory and the enemy holds fast to its fortifications and will not fight, while the soldiers long to return home and wish to retreat but find it difficult—this is called light territory. One should select stalwart cavalry to lie in ambush on the critical routes. If we retreat and the enemy pursues, strike them as they come."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu, saying, "My army has crossed the border and is encamped on enemy territory. The enemy arrives in great force and surrounds us several layers deep. We wish to break out by force, but all four directions are blocked. We wish to inspire the officers and the masses, making them risk everything to burst through the encirclement. What then should I do?"

Sun Wu replied, "Dig deep trenches and build high ramparts, showing the multitude that you are fully fortified and prepared. Be calm and still, making no move, concealing what we are capable of. Announce to the three armies that there is no alternative. Slaughter cattle and burn chariots to feast our soldiers. Burn all the grain, fill in and level the wells, cut off hair and cast aside caps, utterly abandoning any thought of survival. Let the commander have no other plans; let the soldiers have only the will to die. Thereupon sharpen armor and whet blades, concentrating breath and uniting strength. Attack on both flanks simultaneously, beating drums and shouting furiously. The enemy will also be afraid, not knowing which way to turn. With sharp troops divided in force, swiftly attack their rear. This is losing the way and seeking life. Therefore it is said: Those who are in distress and do not scheme will be trapped; those who are trapped and do not fight will perish."

The King of Wu said, "If I surround the enemy, what then should I do?"

Sun Wu replied, "Where mountains are steep and valleys are perilous, making it difficult to cross—this is called cornered foe. The method for attacking them: deploy hidden soldiers in concealed positions, open a path for their escape, showing them a way out. Seeking to live and escape, they will certainly have no will to fight. Attack them accordingly, and however numerous they are, they will surely be defeated. The Art of War also says: If the enemy is in death territory and the soldiers are full of daring, the method for attacking them is to go along with them and do not oppose them, secretly hold the advantageous positions, cut off their supply lines, and be wary of any strange stratagems they may conceal that you do not foresee. Have our crossbows and arrows all guard their positions."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu, saying, "The enemy is brave and fearless, arrogant and unwatchful, with a large and strong force. How should I deal with them?"

Sun Wu reply, "Yield and wait for them, going along with their intentions, making them unaware, so as to increase their laxity. Follow the enemy's movements, lying in ambush and waiting. They will look ahead without looking back, and behind without looking forward. Strike them in the middle, and however numerous they are, they can be taken. The way to attack the arrogant is not to cross spears with them."

The King of Wu asked Sun Wu, saying, "The enemy holds a mountain stronghold, occupying the advantageous position, with ample provisions. If we provoke them, they will not come out. If we find a gap, they will raid and plunder. What should I do about this?"

Sun Wu replied, "Divide our forces to guard the critical points, be watchful and prepared without slackening. Secretly probe their situation and closely observe their laxity. Lure them with profit and forbid them from gathering firewood. After a long time with nothing gained, they will naturally change their stance. Wait until they leave their stronghold, then seize what they cherish. Though the enemy holds a perilous defile, we will be able to break them."

Sun Tzu said: "The commander embodies wisdom, benevolence, respect, trustworthiness, courage, and strictness."

Therefore, wisdom is used to defeat the enemy; benevolence is used to win over the masses; respect is used to attract the worthy; trustworthiness is used to ensure rewards; courage is used to boost morale; strictness is used to unify commands.

Thus, by defeating the enemy, one is able to adapt to changes; when the masses are won over, they are eager to fight; when the worthy and wise gather, secret plans are advantageous; when rewards and punishments are certain, the soldiers exert their full strength; when courage and morale are boosted, the army's awe-inspiring authority doubles of itself; when authority is unified, all will follow the commander's orders.

The Master of Military Divination said: "When an army is about to march, and its banners and flags advance calmly and in order, this is called Heaven's sending. Attack it without delay, and you will capture its great general. When an army is about to march, and its banners and flags droop down like rain, this is called Heaven's dampening—its commander will be lost. When an army is about to march, and its banners and flags are in confusion above, with no fixed direction to the east, west, south, or north, that army will not return. When an army is about to form its battle array, and the rain master appears, this is called the bathing master—do not use a battle array to fight. When an army is about to engage in battle, and there are clouds above it that are red, do not use a battle array. If one arrays first and then fights, none will return to trace their steps. When an army is on the march, and a great wind whirls up before the army, encircling it to the right and cutting it off, that general will perish; if the wind encircles it to the right but strikes its center, that army will obtain grain."

Furthermore, it is noted: The Beitang shuchao quotes from Sun-tzu's Art of War: "Honor them without arrogance, entrust them without monopolizing authority, assist them without concealment, and endanger them without fear. Thus, the mind of a good general, like a jade disc, cannot be defiled." The Taiping yulan attributes this to Zhuge Liang's Essentials of Military Affairs. It also quotes from Sun-tzu's Secret Essentials of Military Affairs: "A good general contrives his plans as if he were hungry—therefore he fights and is sure to win, attacks and is sure to conquer." It is noted: Sun-tzu has no such book. Wu of Wei had a one-volume work called Essentials of Military Affairs, which was also perhaps called Sun-tzu's Essentials of Military Affairs, just as Wu of Wei's own Military Affairs was also called A Continuation of Sun-tzu's Art of War. The Beitang shuchao also quotes from Sun-tzu's Treatise on Military Affairs: "Without the civil, there is no way to bring order in times of peace; without the martial, there is no way to quell disorder. One who is skilled in the use of military force has three strategies: the highest strategy attacks wisdom, the middle strategy attacks righteousness, and the lowest strategy attacks momentum." It is noted: This too does not sound like the words of Sun Wu—later generations of military men mostly took Sun Wu as their ancestor, so when they composed a Treatise on Military Affairs, they simply called it Sun-tzu's Treatise on Military Affairs. I record this here as a reference.